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Mobbing... Definiowanie pojęcia i rozwój badań
Mobbing. Nowe pojęcie czynowe zjawisko?
Z pogranicza psychologii klinicznej oraz psychologii pracy.
Autor: Ewa Ger
Definiowanie pojęcia i rozwój badań
Mobbing z angielskiego " to mob" oznacza "otoczyć, zaatakować, napadać, dokuczać". Słowo to zaczerpnięte zostało z łacińskiego "mobile vulgus" (chwiejny tłum). Dziś w j. angielskim słowo "mob" opisuje "zakłócający porządek tłum zaangażowany w naruszenie prawa". Zjawisko to odkryto w latach 60 u małych dzieci w grupach szkolnych, przedszkolnych i tzw. "podwórkowych". Dr Peter-Paul Heinemann badając problem agresji wśród dzieci zetknął się z tą specyficzną formą jej wyrażania (Davenport, Schwartz, Elliot, 1999). Takie zachowania, przez młodocianych nie zawsze uświadamiane, mogą zostać dość szybko wyeliminowane w procesie uświadamiającym. Nie zawsze jednak z powodzeniem. Kompleks opisywanych mechanizmów może przybierać różną formę: od przemocy fizycznej poprzez przykre "niespodzianki" po złośliwości i poważne pogróżki. Zjawisko to, a więc mobbing wśród dzieci, obecnie określane jest terminem bullying dla zdywersyfikowania tych zjawisk u dzieci i dorosłych.
Konrad Lorenz był pierwszym, który użył terminu mobbing do opisu zachowań zwierząt, które gromadziły się w tłumie i prezentowały atakujące zachowania w celu odstraszenia silniejszego osobnika.
Leymann rozpoczął swoje badania w Szwecji przenosząc je później na grunt niemiecki. Zajął się badaniem tzw. "trudnych" ludzi w miejscu pracy i zauważył, iż wielu z nich nie było takimi w przeszłości. To, że pracownicy ci postrzegani byli jako trudni nie było przyczyną zmiany ich charakterów, lecz struktura i kultura pracy nadała im takie znamiona. Jednokrotne zidentyfikowanie pracownika jako trudnego było przyczyną jego późniejszego zwolnienia. To właśnie Leymann nazywa mobbingiem. W 1984 roku opublikował pierwszy raport nawiązujący do tych odkryć. Od tamtej pory opublikował 60 artykułów i książek. Dzięki temu dorobkowi podjęto szereg badań w tym kierunku, m. in. w Norwegii, Finlandii, Wielkiej Brytanii, Irlandii, Szwajcarii, Austrii, na Węgrzech, we Włoszech Francji, Australii, Nowej Zelandii, Japonii i Południowej Afryce.
W 1976 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych, psychiatra i antropolog dr Carroll Brodsky napisał książkę pt: "Napastowany pracownik" (The Harassed Worker). Używa on terminu "harassment" (napastowanie), jako zachowanie, które pociąga za sobą powtarzające i utrzymujące się próby męczenia, torturowania i frustrowania współpracownika lub wymuszania na nim pewnych reakcji. Jest to zachowanie, które nieustannie prowokuje, wywiera presje, zastrasza, onieśmiela i powoduje ogromne poczucie dyskomfortu u tej osoby. Brodsky podkreśla paraliżujący wpływ takiego zachowania na zdrowie psychiczne i fizyczne pracowników oraz ich efektywność.
Kiedy Leymann po raz pierwszy zdefiniował pojęcie mobbingu w miejscu pracy w 1984 roku, napisał, iż jest to psychologiczny terror, na który składa się "systematyczny wrogi i nieetyczny sposób komunikowania przez jedną lub kilka osób skierowany przeciwko jednostce". Osoba atakowana traci wiarę w możliwości obrony samej siebie oraz uzyskanie jakiejkolwiek pomocy.
W 1998 roku dziennikarka Andrea Adams była pierwszą osobą w Wielkiej Brytanii, która zwróciła uwagę na zjawisko bullyingu wprowadzając na ekrany BBC serie reportaży. Następnie w 1992 ukazała się jej książka "Bullying w pracy: jak zareagować i jak go opanować". W jej rozumieniu bullying jest "nieustannym znajdowaniem winy" i "pomniejszaniem wartości jednostki" często za zgodą kierownictwa danej instytucji. W 1997 utworzono konto bankowe nazwane jej imieniem mające na celu wspieranie ofiar takiej przemocy. Dzięki finansom zebranym dla tej sprawy przeprowadzono badania dotyczące zasięgu bullyingu oraz nadużyć i zniesławień przekazywanych drogą poczty elektronicznej w miejscu pracy. Odkryto zadziwiającą eksplozję wiadomości e-mail o upokarzających treściach nazwanych "flame mail" lub "electronic bullying". W międzyczasie opublikowano książkę brytyjskiego autora Tima Field: "Terrorysta w polu widzenia" (Bully in sight). Jest to szczegółowy poradnik traktujący o tym jak rozpoznać i radzić sobie z "terrorystami" (bullies) w miejscu pracy. Autor definiuje bullying jako ciągły i nieustający atak na poczucie wartości i godności u jednostki. Ukrytym powodem takiego postępowania jest chęć dominacji, ujarzmienia i eliminacji. Field podkreśla, iż jednostka atakująca (bully) zaprzecza odpowiedzialności za jakiekolwiek konsekwencje własnego zachowania.
W Wielkiej Brytanii i niektórych krajach anglojęzycznych termin "bullying" używany jest do opisu tego, co Leymann określa jako mobbing. Można zatem powiedzieć, że terminy te używane są zamiennie.
W 1998 International Labour Office (ILO) opublikował raport "Zbrodnia w pracy" sporządzony przez Duncan Chappel i Vittorio Di Marino. W raporcie tym problematyka mobbingu i bullyingu poruszana jest obok zabójstw i innych powszechnie znanych zbrodniczych zachowań.
Choć przeprowadzone przez Brodsky'ego badania wykazały, iż istnieje zjawisko prześladowania w miejscu pracy, mobbing nie był jeszcze postrzegany jako znaczący problem w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Zainteresowanie rosło wraz z pojawieniem się nowych artykułów i badań przeprowadzonych w tym zakresie. W 1990 na łamach czasopisma "Violence and Victims" opublikowano artykuł Leymanna "Mobbing i psychologiczny terror w pracy" (Mobbing and psychological terror at workplaces). W 1991 "Personnel Journal" opublikował artykuł psychologa klinicznego Brady Wilson'a specjalizującego się w zakresie traumy w miejscu pracy, który pokazał, że amerykański biznes ponosi koszty rzędu miliardów dolarów w wyniku zniesławiania swoich pracowników. Dr Harvey A. Hornstein - profesor psychologii społeczno - organizacyjnej Uniwersytetu Columbia napisał książkę pt.: Brutalni szefowie i ich ofiary: jak zidentyfikować i przezwyciężyć nadużycia w miejscu pracy" (1996). Syndrom brutalnego szefa u Hornstein'a można identyfikować z terminem "bully" u Fielda i Adams. Oba te terminy oznaczają także fizyczny atak.
Wiele innych północno - amerykańskich placówek naukowych podjęło próby badania tego zjawiska w ciągu ostatnich kilku lat. W 1995 roku Louis Price Spratlen (University Ombudsman przy University of Washington) napisała artykuł pt.: Konflikt interpersonalny oraz okrutne i niesprawiedliwe traktowanie w uniwersyteckim miejscu pracy", który został opublikowany w czasopiśmie "Violence and Victims". Jako okrutne i niesprawiedliwe traktowanie (workplace treatment) rozumie ona "zachowanie lub sytuacje - bez seksualnych i rasistowskich konotacji - będące dla odbiorcy nieprzyjemne, niepożądane, nierozsądne, niepoprawne, nadmierne lub pogwałcające prawa człowieka. Dr Loraleigh Keashly (Academic Director, graduate program in dispute resolution, College of Urban, Labor and Metropolitan Affairs at Wayne State University) używa terminu "emotional abuse" w miejscu pracy. Autorka analizuje i podsumowuje badania przeprowadzone w latach 80 i 90 dwudziestego wieku dotyczące tego, co nazywa ona "wrogim werbalnym lub niewerbalnym zachowaniem (pozbawionym kontekstu seksualnego i rasowego), którego celem jest wymuszenie uległości i posłuszeństwa".
Wzrastająca liczba doniesień o nadużyciach w miejscu pracy wywołała coraz większe zainteresowanie mediów w USA. Problem znalazł swoje miejsce także w internecie. Wszystkie podejmowane w ten sposób inicjatywy miały na celu wspieranie "zainfekowanych" zakładów.
Zakrojone na szeroką skalę badania przeprowadzone w 1990 roku w Szwecji wykazały, że aż 3,5% pracowników doświadczyło mobbingu. Leymann oszacował, że 15% samobójstw w tym kraju ma swe podłoże właśnie w tym zjawisku. Z badań tych wynika, że mobbingu najczęściej doświadczają osoby w wieku 21 - 40 lat, zaś najgłębsze szkody psychiczne pozostawia takie doświadczenie u osób starszych.
Problem mobbingu został bardzo nagłośniony w Europie i wiele czyni się aby zmniejszyć jego skalę. Sporządzono nowe prawo pracy, definiujące pojęcie mobbingu oraz regulujące kwestie prawne dla osób poszkodowanych. Założono telefoniczne "gorące linie", utworzono specjalne rubryki w codziennej prasie informujące poszkodowanych o miejscach, do których mogą się udać po pomoc. W Szwecji powstała także klinika rehabilitacyjna dla ofiar mobbingu.
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